Coefficient of Restitution Calculator

The history behind the Coefficient of Restitution Calculator traces back through the following developments. The history of physics spans over two millennia, beginning with the natural philosophy of ancient Greece. Aristotle (384–322 BCE) proposed that all matter consisted of four elements and that objects moved toward their natural place, with heavier objects falling faster than lighter ones. While largely incorrect, his systematic approach to explaining nature dominated Western thought for nearly 2,000 years. The Scientific Revolution overturned Aristotelian physics. Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) performed groundbreaking experiments on inclined planes and falling bodies, demonstrating that all objects fall with the same acceleration regardless of mass, and established the principle of inertia. His use of mathematics to describe motion was revolutionary. Isaac Newton synthesized these developments in his landmark Principia Mathematica (1687), laying out the three laws of motion and the law of universal gravitation. Newton's framework unified terrestrial and celestial mechanics, explaining planetary orbits with the same equations governing a falling apple. His calculus provided the mathematical language for expressing rates of change. The 19th century brought two major theoretical achievements. James Clerk Maxwell formulated his equations of electromagnetism between 1861 and 1862, unifying electricity, magnetism, and optics, and predicting the existence of electromagnetic waves traveling at the speed of light. Thermodynamics was developed by Carnot, Clausius, and Kelvin, establishing the laws governing heat, work, and entropy. The 20th century produced two revolutions that fundamentally altered the classical picture. Albert Einstein published the special theory of relativity in 1905, showing that space and time are not absolute but relative to the observer, and that mass and energy are equivalent via E = mc². His general theory of relativity in 1915 reinterpreted gravity as the curvature of spacetime. Simultaneously, quantum mechanics emerged from the work of Planck, Bohr, Heisenberg, and Schrödinger, revealing that at atomic scales energy is quantized and particles exhibit wave-particle duality. These developments culminated in the Standard Model of particle physics, which describes all known fundamental particles and three of the four fundamental forces.